BLACK COHOSH FOR MENOPAUSE

INTRODUCTION: Black cohosh (Actaea racemosa) is a perennial that grows in the eastern United States and parts of Canada. Use of the herb has been recorded by Native Americans for more than 100 years. Historically, black cohosh has been used in the management of menopausal hot flashes, vaginal dryness, and night sweats and to induce labor. 

DOSING: Doses of black cohosh are sometimes standardized by the amount of the chemical 27- deoxyactein, which is an active ingredient. A typical dose of black cohosh ranges from 40 to 80 mg of dried herb per day. (Approximately 1 mg of 27-deoxyactein is present in each 20-mg tablet or in 20 drops of the liquid formulation).

ADVERSE EFFECTS: Adverse effects include hypotension, uterine stimulation, and gastrointestinal (GI) complaints such as nausea. Black cohosh can increase the action of antihypertensives, so concurrent use should be avoided. Women with liver disorders should consult their health care provider before taking this herb.

RELATED;

1.  GINGER  

2.  VITAMINS

3.  GINSENG

REFERENCES

THE ENDOCRINE PANCREAS

INTRODUCTION: The pancreas is a long, slender organ, most of which is located posterior to the bottom half of the stomach. Although it is primarily an exocrine gland, secreting a variety of digestive enzymes, the pancreas has an endocrine function. Its pancreatic islets clusters of cells formerly known as the islets of Langerhans secrete the hormones glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide (PP). Insulin: Glucagon

CELLS AND SECRETIONS OF THE PANCREATIC ISLETS: The pancreatic islets each contain four varieties of cells: 1) The alpha cell produces the hormone glucagon and makes up approximately 20 percent of each islet. Glucagon plays an important role in blood glucose regulation; low blood glucose levels stimulate its release.

2) The beta cell produces the hormone insulin and makes up approximately 75 percent of each islet. Elevated blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin.

3) The delta cell accounts for four percent of the islet cells and secretes the peptide hormone somatostatin. It must be remembered that, somatostatin is also released by the hypothalamus (as GHIH), and the stomach and intestines also secrete it. An inhibiting hormone, pancreatic somatostatin inhibits the release of both glucagon and insulin.

4) The PP cell accounts for about one percent of islet cells and secretes the pancreatic polypeptide hormone. It is thought to play a role in appetite, as well as in the regulation of pancreatic exocrine and endocrine secretions. Pancreatic polypeptide released following a meal may reduce further food consumption; however, it is also released in response to fasting.

REGULATION OF BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVELS BY INSULIN AND GLUCAGON: Glucose is required for cellular respiration and is the preferred fuel for all body cells. The body derives glucose from the breakdown of the carbohydrate-containing foods and drinks we consume. Glucose not immediately taken up by cells for fuel can be stored by the liver and muscles as glycogen, or converted to triglycerides and stored in the adipose tissue. Hormones regulate both the storage and the utilization of glucose as required. Receptors located in the pancreas sense blood glucose levels, and subsequently the pancreatic cells secrete glucagon or insulin to maintain normal levels.

Glucagon Receptors in the pancreas can sense the decline in blood glucose levels, such as during periods of fasting or during prolonged labor or exercise. In response, the alpha cells of the pancreas secrete the hormone glucagon, which has several effects:

1) It stimulates the liver to convert its stores of glycogen back into glucose. This response is known as glycogenolysis.  The glucose is then released into the circulation for use by body cells.

2) It stimulates the liver to take up amino acids from the blood and convert them into glucose. This response is known as gluconeogenesis.  It stimulates lipolysis, the breakdown of stored triglycerides into free fatty acids and glycerol. Some of the free glycerol released into the bloodstream travels to the liver, which converts it into glucose. This is also a form of gluconeogenesis. Taken together, these actions increase blood glucose levels. The activity of glucagon is regulated through a negative feedback mechanism; rising blood glucose levels inhibit further glucagon production and secretion.

INSULIN: The primary function of insulin is to facilitate the uptake of glucose into body cells. Red blood cells, as well as cells of the brain, liver, kidneys, and the lining of the small intestine, do not have insulin receptors on their cell membranes and do not require insulin for glucose uptake. Although all other body cells do require insulin if they are to take glucose from the bloodstream, skeletal muscle cells and adipose cells are the primary targets of insulin. The presence of food in the intestine triggers the release of gastrointestinal tract hormones such as glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide. This is in turn the initial trigger for insulin production and secretion by the beta cells of the pancreas. Once nutrient absorption occurs, the resulting surge in blood glucose levels further stimulates insulin secretion.

RELATED;

1.  DIABETES MELLITUS  

2.  GLUCAGON

3.  PANCREATITIS

4.  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

REFERENCES

CHAPTER TWO OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL

CHAPTER TWO OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL:  Chapter two of the medical research proposal is one other very important part of the research project.  In this chapter, we are basically looking at the most current and available information concerning the research topic.

2.0 Introduction

2.1  Literature 1

2.2

2.3

2.4  The conceptual framework

2.5  Summary

RELATED;

1.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

LIFE CYCLE OF ERYTHROCYTES

 

INTRODUCTION: Production of erythrocytes in the marrow occurs at the staggering rate of more than 2 million cells per second. For this production to occur, a number of raw materials must be present in adequate amounts. These include the same nutrients that are essential to the production and maintenance of any cell, such as glucose, lipids, and amino acids. However, erythrocyte production also requires several trace elements:

1) Iron: Each heme group in a hemoglobin molecule contains an ion of the trace mineral iron. On average, less than 20 percent of the iron we consume is absorbed. Heme iron, from animal foods such as meat, poultry, and fish, is absorbed more efficiently than non-heme iron from plant foods. Upon absorption, iron becomes part of the body’s total iron pool. The bone marrow, liver, and spleen can store iron in the protein compounds ferritin and hemosiderin. Ferroportin transports the iron across the intestinal cell plasma membranes and from its storage sites into tissue fluid where it enters the blood. When EPO stimulates the production of erythrocytes, iron is released from storage, bound to transferrin, and carried to the red marrow where it attaches to erythrocyte precursors.

2) Copper: A trace mineral, copper is a component of two plasma proteins, hephaestin and ceruloplasmin. Without these, hemoglobin could not be adequately produced. Located in intestinal villi, hephaestin enables iron to be absorbed by intestinal cells. Ceruloplasmin transports copper. Both enable the oxidation of iron from Fe²⁺ to Fe³⁺, a form in which it can be bound to its transport protein, transferrin, for transport to body cells. In a state of copper deficiency, the transport of iron for heme synthesis decreases, and iron can accumulate in tissues, where it can eventually lead to organ damage.

3) Zinc: The trace mineral zinc functions as a co-enzyme that facilitates the synthesis of the heme portion of hemoglobin.

4) B vitamins: The B vitamins folate and vitamin B12 function as co-enzymes that facilitate DNA synthesis. Thus, both are critical for the synthesis of new cells, including erythrocytes. Erythrocytes live up to 120 days in the circulation, after which the worn-out cells are removed by a type of myeloid phagocytic cell called a macrophage, located primarily within the bone marrow, liver, and spleen. The components of the degraded erythrocytes’ hemoglobin are further processed as follows:  1) Globin, the protein portion of hemoglobin, is broken down into amino acids, which can be sent back to the bone marrow to be used in the production of new erythrocytes. Hemoglobin that is not phagocytized is broken down in the circulation, releasing alpha and beta chains that are removed from circulation by the kidneys.  2) The iron contained in the heme portion of hemoglobin may be stored in the liver or spleen, primarily in the form of ferritin or hemosiderin, or carried through the bloodstream by transferrin to the red bone marrow for recycling into new erythrocytes.  3) The non-iron portion of heme is degraded into the waste product biliverdin, a green pigment, and then into another waste product, bilirubin, a yellow pigment. Bilirubin binds to albumin and travels in the blood to the liver, which uses it in the manufacture of bile, a compound released into the intestines to help emulsify dietary fats. 

In the large intestine, bacteria breaks the bilirubin apart from the bile and converts it to urobilinogen and then into stercobilin. It is then eliminated from the body in the feces.  Broad-spectrum antibiotics typically eliminate these bacteria as well and may alter the color of feces. The kidneys also remove any circulating bilirubin and other related metabolic byproducts such as urobilins and secrete them into the urine.

The breakdown pigments formed from the destruction of hemoglobin can be seen in a variety of situations. At the site of an injury, biliverdin from damaged RBCs produces some of the dramatic colors associated with bruising. With a failing liver, bilirubin cannot be removed effectively from circulation and causes the body to assume a yellowish tinge associated with jaundice. Stercobilins within the feces produce the typical brown color associated with this waste. And the yellow of urine is associated with the urobilins.

RELATED;

1. THE HUMAN RED BLOOD CELLS

2. HEMOGLOBIN THE OXYGEN TRANSPORTER

3. BLOOD AND IT’S COMPONENTS

REFERENCES

ANDROID APPS DOWNLOAD

ANDROID APPS DOWNLOAD: Android is one of the most widely used operating systems on the planet today, with on-going developments and advancements.  For everyone having a smartphone running on android, Google play store is a must know because then they will be able to download their desired apps and automatically install them onto their devices.  With time then, such apps will need updates which is again accomplished by the same system.  There are however apps that may not require updates or they are used when offline.  On this page, get some of the interesting android apps including but not limited to games, music players, file transfer apps, video downloaders among others.  These apps are free from the play store, meaning that you don't have to pay for them and once you have your smartphone, feel free to download and enjoy the digital era.  In case you are a basic user, you may also want to know how to install android apps from a PC running on Windows 10 by clicking here.  

1.  Pool table game:  Pool table is one of the most interesting android games and when installed, you can decide to play against a computer, or get a friend to play with, just like a physical pool game. And if you are running windows 10, you can also follow the link below for video demonstrations on Microsoft solitaire collections games.

How to play and enjoy tri peaks from Microsoft solitaire collections

 

2.  Snaptube video downloader for android:  Snaptube is a very useful app for downloading videos from any website.

  

3.  Cross DJ music mix app:  Cross Dj is a very good music android app.  For those used and interested in virtual Dj for windows, this may be your android replacement.  If you are running windows, you can also follow the link below to download GOM player.

GOM player download for windows

You can also download AIMP player for windows from the link below

AIMP music player

 

4.  Matatu game:  Matatu game is a very good android game for those used to play cards on a computer.  To me it's like the Microsoft solitaire collections for Windows 10.  If you are running Windows 10, click on the video link below for the demo on how to play Microsoft tripeaks.

Play tripeaks in windows 10

5.  Space racing 3D game  

6.  Temple run 2 game  

7.  Thunder VPN v4.1.2:  Thunder vpn is one of the best android vpn apps that I have ever used.  For all the time I have been using it, I have never been restricted from accessing any site.  And in case you are running Windows, you can also follow the link below to download Psiphon VPN.

Download psiphon vpn for windows

8.  Android apps installer setup:  This android apps installer is very useful for those having issues installing android apps from PC to android devices.  The use interface are pretty simple.  It may however require you to activate debugging on your phone and if you have any issues with that, you can access the details from the link below.

How to activate USB debugging in android smartphones

You can also learn about installing android apps using adb commands by following the link below;

Full use of adb commands

9.  Android file manager 

10.  FRP bypass apk  

11.  Psiphon pro apk :  Psiphon is a very good vpn that can help you bypass restricted internet sites. 

12.  Automatic call recorder:  Automatic call recorder is a very good app in recording your phone calls and voices that goes around your smartphone.

13.  App inspector apk:  App inspector is a very useful android app when you want to use adb commands especially when it comes to uninstalling unwanted android apps using adb.  If you have not been following my tutorials about adb, you can read in details by clicking here.

RELATED;

1.  Windows software downloads    

2.  Ultimate software downloads  

3.  Windows backup and installation media tools

4.  Software download links and video demonstrations

RETROSPECTIVE DESIGNS

INTRODUCTION: Studies with a retrospective design are ones in which a phenomenon existing in the present is linked to phenomena that occurred in the past, before the study was initiated. That is, the researcher is interested in a present outcome and attempts to determine antecedent factors that caused it. For example, most of the early epidemiologic studies of the link between cigarette smoking and lung cancer were retrospective.

STARTING POINT RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES: In such a study, the researcher begins with groups of people with and without lung cancer (the dependent variable). The researcher then looks for differences between the two groups in antecedent behaviors or conditions. Retrospective studies are often cross-sectional, with data on both the dependent and independent variables collected once, simultaneously.

INCORPORATION OF STUDY DESIGNS: Researchers can sometimes strengthen a retrospective design by taking certain steps. For example, one type of retrospective design, referred to as a case-control design, involves the comparison of cases or subjects with a certain illness or condition, such as lung cancer victims, with controls for example, people without lung cancer. In conducting a strong case-control study, researchers find the cases and obtain from them information about the history of the presumed cause. Then the researchers must find controls without the disease or condition who are as similar as possible to the cases with regard to key extraneous variables such as, age, gender, and also obtain historical information about the presumed cause.

If controls are well chosen, the only difference between them and the cases is exposure to the presumed cause. To the degree that researchers can demonstrate comparability between cases and controls with regard to extraneous traits, inferences regarding the presumed cause of the disease are enhanced.

RELATED;

1.  THE RETROSPECTIVE-PROSPECTIVE STUDY DESIGN

2.  CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY DESIGN

3.  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES

ALOE VERA

Aloe vera is derived from the gel inside the leaf of the aloe plant, which is a member of the lily family. Used medicinally for thousands of years, aloe vera contains over 70 active substances, including amino acids, minerals, vitamins, and enzymes. Aminoacids: Vitamins A: Enzymes

Aloe vera is best known for its moisturizing and wound healing properties when applied topically. There are numerous aloe products available, including soaps, lotions, creams, and sunblocks. Some research suggests it may have hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects when given orally and may even be useful in treating moderate plaque psoriasis.

RELATED;

1.  SKIN INFECTIONS  

2.  WOUND HEALING

3.  PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS

4.  TRADITIONAL AND COMPLIMENTARY MEDICATIONS

REFERENCES

NUCLEOTIDES

 

INTRODUCTION:  In 1868, F. Miescher isolated nucleic acid by then called nuclein from pus cells.  Later, A. Kossel won a Nobel prize in 1910 after he differentiated RNA and DNA in 1882.  In 1906, Kossel described the 4 bases in nucleic acids.  Nucleotides are precursors of the nucleic acids, deoxy-ribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).  The nucleic acids are concerned with the storage and transfer of genetic information.  The universal currency of energy, namely ATP, is a nucleotide derivative. Nucleotides are also components of important co-enzymes like NAD+ and FAD, and metabolic regulators such as cAMP and cGMP.  [STRUCTURE OF RNA]

COMPOSITION OF NUCLEOTIDES:  A nucleotide is made up of 3 components:  (1) Nitrogenous base, which can be a purine or a pyrimidine.  (2)  Pentose sugar, either ribose for RNA or deoxyribose for DNA.  (3) Phosphate groups esterified to the sugar. 

GENERATION OF A NUCLEOTIDE:  When a base combines with a pentose sugar, a nucleoside is formed.  When the nucleoside is esterified to a phosphate group, it is called a nucleotide or nucleoside mono-phosphate.  When a second phosphate gets esterified to the existing phosphate group, a nucleoside diphosphate is generated.  The attachment of a 3^rd phosphate group results in the formation of a nucleoside triphosphate.  The nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleoside monophosphates.

BASES PRESENT IN THE NUCLEIC ACIDS: Two types of nitrogenous bases; the purines and pyrimidines are present in nucleic acids.

Purine Bases:  The purine bases present in RNA and DNA are the same; adenine and guanine.  Adenine is 6-amino purine and guanine is 2-amino, 6-oxypurine.

Minor Purine Bases:  These bases may be found in small amounts in nucleic acids and hence called minor bases.  These are hypoxanthine (6-oxopurine) and xanthine (2, 6-di-oxopurine).  Uric acid (2,6,8-tri-oxopurine) is formed as the end product of the catabolism of other purine bases. 

Pyrimidine Bases:  The pyrimidine bases present in nucleic acids are cytosine, thymine and uracil.  Cytosine is present in both DNA and RNA. Thymine is present in DNA and uracil in RNA.  A few other modified pyrimidine bases like dihydrouracil and 5-methyl cytosine are also found rarely in some types of RNA.  

RELATED;

1.  DNA, THE GENETIC MATERIAL

2.  RNA, THE GENETIC MATERIAL

3.  PROTEINS

4.  AMINO ACIDS

5.  LIPIDS

REFERENCES

MEDIA CREATION TOOL FOR USB

1.  WIN TO USB SETUP TOOL:  These days we are running out of so many conventional methods of data transfer like it use to be in the 90s.  In the past, CD/DVDs were the mainstay for data transfer and media installation from one PC to another where it required you to have a pre-burnt CD/DVD in order to accomplish the job.  This method has however become a bit complicated and less dependable with technological advances especially that, is is less dependable when it comes to data security.  Have you ever wondered changing from one operating system to another, or just upgrading from one version of windows to a higher version?  This tutorial is then for you.  In this case, you will need a windows installation media either on a USB stick or a DVD for the process to continue.  In most cases, you will need the windows installation file as an ISO file, and then use one of the numerous tools to burn it on a DVD or create one on a USB flash media.  This tool is useful in creation of windows installation media using a USB stick.  And if you would like to know the way you create yourself a windows 10 disc image, click here.

DOWNLOAD THE TOOL

2.  UNIVERSAL USB:  The universal USB installer is a very light tool with a user friendly interface and can also be used to create bootable USB drives for all windows including almost all Windows and Linux versions.  I have used it in the past to switch from windows 7 to windows 8.1 and most recently when I wanted to get to windows 10.  This tool is also capable of creating numerous media based on Linux and other Unix operating systems.

UNIVERSAL USB INSTALLER  

3.  POWERISO:  PowerISO is another light weight software that can be used to create a windows installation media and although the free version of it supports an ISO file not more than 500Mbs, the download here is a crack with the username and serial, and therefore will be able to support the biggest ISO recommended by the developers.

Download Poweriso x64 with username and serial

4.  UNETBOOTIN TOOL FOR WINDOWS:  This is another easy to use tool as long as you are equipped with your Windows ISO file and an empty USB disc 6GB and higher.

Download setup

RELATED;

1.  WINDOWS SOFTWARE DOWNLOADS

2.  ULTIMATE SOFTWARE DOWNLOADS

3.  ANDROID SOFTWARE DOWNLOADS

4.  HOW TO CREATE A BOOTABLE USB DISC

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND FUNCTION OF HORMONES

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND FUNCTION OF HORMONES

ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS

Introduction: Adrenergic antagonists act by directly blocking adrenergic receptors. The actions of these drugs are specific to either alpha or beta blockade. Medications in this class have great therapeutic application and are the most widely prescribed class of autonomic nervous system drugs.

1) Alpha-adrenergic antagonists, or simply alpha blockers, are used for their effects on vascular smooth muscle. By relaxing vascular smooth muscle in small arteries, alpha1 blockers such as doxazosin cause vasodilation, decreasing Blood Pressure. They may be used either alone or in combination with other agents in the treatment of hypertension.

2) A second use is in the treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH), due to their ability to increase urine flow by relaxing smooth muscle in the bladder neck, prostate, and urethra.

Side effects: The most common adverse effect of alpha blockers is orthostatic hypotension, which occurs when a patient abruptly changes from a recumbent to an upright position. Reflex tachycardia, nasal congestion, and impotence are other important side effects that may occur as a consequence of increased parasympathetic activity.

Beta-adrenergic antagonists may block beta1 receptors, beta2 receptors, or both types of receptors. Regardless of their receptor specificity, all beta blockers are used therapeutically for their effects on the cardiovascular system. Beta blockers decrease the rate and force of contraction of the heart and slow electrical conduction through the atrioventricular node. Drugs that selectively block beta1 receptors, such as atenolol, are called cardioselective agents. Because they have little effect on noncardiac tissue, they exert fewer side effects than nonselective agents such as propranolol.

3) The primary use of beta blockers is in the treatment of hypertension. Although the exact mechanism by which beta blockers reduce BP is not completely understood, it is thought that the reduction may be due to decreased cardiac output or to suppression of renin release by the kidneys.

4) By decreasing the cardiac workload, beta blockers can ease the pain associated with migraines and angina pectoris.

5) By slowing electrical conduction across the myocardium, beta blockers are useful in treating certain types of dysrhythmias.

6) Other therapeutic uses include the treatment of heart failure, myocardial infarction, and narrow-angle glaucoma.

RELATED;

1.  CHOLINOMIMETICS

2.  PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS

REFERENCES

THE INTRAVENOUS ROUTE OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

THE INTRAVENOUS ROUTE OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION:  The intravenous route of drug administration is one of the most common routes used in the medical field.  In this route a superficial vein will be allocated on one of the most common anatomical sites, and the drug will be given either via a needle and a syringe, or using an in-dwelling intravenous line also known as a catheter.  Then the desired drug will be given either as a single time bolus or by slow infusion via an intravenous drip into the venous system.  Before we continue, if you are new to our site, you can also follow the link below for routes of drug administration on our YouTube channel.

Drug administration routes and techniques

BENEFITS OF IV ROUTE:  The intravenous route of drug administration has several advantages over the other routes of drug administration and it is one of the most commonly used routes in cases of emergence and when dealing with unconscious patients and young children and neonates where swallowing may be limited.

1.  It achieves 100% bioavailability of the administered drug.  We already looked at bioavailability as the portion or percentage of the drug that reaches the systemic circulation.  Now that this medication has been directly injected it the circulatory system, all of it will reach blood as long as it is injected properly and it will exert it's effect as soon as desired.  This means we can achieve maximum plasma concentration and attain the desired half life in the time intended.

2.  It allows the drug to exert it's effects faster compared to other routes.  While drugs given for example via oral route will have to first be absorbed from the GIT and pass through the liver, IV drugs will reach target organs just after administration and this allows the route to be the first choice in emergence situations.  This is because, within 72 seconds and individual's blood will have circulated via all the body organs for a normally functioning heart.  You can also click on the link below to read about the GIT live bypass of blood components.

The hepatic portal circulation

3.  This type of route maximizes compliance to the administered drug.  While the patient may skip some medications or forget the right dosage, this route ensures that all the intended drug is administered because in most cases the drug is given by a medical personnel.  Things to do with compliance sometimes come with exaggerated side effects of the drugs and complicated route of drug administration.

SETBACKS OF USING THE IV ROUTE:  Everything good has some side effects as well, and so is this route.  Let us look at some of the life threatening events that may result after use of the intravenous route.  It should however be noted that the drugs given via this route will have been evaluated for that purpose and not every drug will be given that way.

1)  Adverse effects of the injected drug:  Before we look at this let me first clarify on the difference between a side effect and an adverse effect.  The side effects are known and predictable problems that result from use of a drug.  On the other hand, adverse effects are unpredictable, not clearly known and are deadly effects following use of a drug.  So, in short, adverse effects are more intense and maybe long lasting.  Following intravenous drug administration, the following adverse effects maybe encountered.

a)  The drug may have a narrow therapeutic index or windows, subjecting the patient to toxicity, in case they have impaired liver for drug metabolism and or kidney disease, which may be affecting elimination of the drug.

b)  Some drugs are corrosive and fast administration may damage the blood vessels and tissues at the injection site.  This is the main reason why most of the drugs given via this route are injected slowly or mixed in intravenous fluids.

2)  Risk for sepsis:  Venipuncture or penetrating the skin to access a blood vessel, is an invasive procedure, and this may introduce microbes into circulation, predisposing the patient to sepsis.  You can follow the link below to read about sepsis in details.

Sepsis and septic shock

3.  Tissue injury:  Some drugs are corrosive and their administration via this route may lead to damage of the blood vessels and nearby tissues where it is injected leaving a pathological condition following administration of the drug.

EXAMPLES OF DRUGS ADMINISTERED USING THE IV ROUTE:  Here are some of the examples of drugs administered by the intravenous route.

1.  Ceftriaxone

2.  Gentamycin

3.  Penicillin

4.  Blood transfusion

RELATED;

1.  MEDICINE AND MEDICAL CONDITIONS

2.  PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS

3.  THE INTRAMASCULAR ROUTE OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

4.  THE ORAL ROUTE OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION