BIAS

 

INTRODUCTION:  Bias is a major concern in designing a study because it can threaten the study’s validity and trustworthiness. In general, a bias is an influence that produces a distortion in the study results. Biases can affect the quality of evidence in both qualitative and quantitative studies.

SOURCES OF BIAS:  Bias can result from both the participants and the researcher him/herself however, in most cases it can be prevented by the researcher.  Bias can result from a number of factors, including the following:

1.  Study participants:  Sometimes people distort their behavior or their self-disclosures which may be consciously or subconsciously, in an effort to present themselves in the best possible light.  Take an example you are researching on the behavior of smokers and alcoholics, it may be difficult for the respondents to dispose all the effects of exposure if they are causalities.

2.  Subjectivity of the researcher:  Investigators may distort information in the direction of their preconceptions, or in line with their own experiences.  It will be very common for a researcher to assume the respondents will mention the same difficulty he/she found in a given intervention.

3.  Sample characteristics:  The sample itself may be biased; for example, if a researcher studies abortion attitudes but includes only members of right-to-life (or pro-choice) groups in the sample, the results would be distorted.  On the other hand, it will be hard to generate good results on Circumcision, if in the sample population, the majority are Muslims of from Lumasaba region.

4.  Faulty methods of data collection:  An inadequate method of capturing key concepts can lead to biases; for example, a flawed paper-and pencil measure of patient satisfaction with nursing care may exaggerate or underestimate patients’ complaints.

5.  Faulty study design:  A researcher may not have structured the study in such a way that an unbiased answer to the research question can be achieved.

CONCLUSION:  To some extent, bias can never be avoided totally because the potential for its occurrence is so pervasive. Some bias is haphazard and affects only small segments of the data. As an example of such random bias, a handful of study participants might fail to provide totally accurate information as a result of extreme fatigue at the time the data were collected.  Systematic bias, on the other hand, results when the bias is consistent or uniform. For example, if a spring scale consistently measured people’s weights as being 2 pounds heavier than their true weight, there would be systematic bias in the data on weight.

 

RELATED;

1.  RELIABILITY

2.  QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

3.  QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

4.  RESEARCH STUDY DESIGNS

5.  DATA COLLECTION

6.  SAMPLING

REFERENCES

THE RESEARCH STUDY SETTINGS

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION:  By the end of this article, the reader/medical student will be able to;

1.  Outline the importance of a research study setting

2.  Explain the different types of research study setting

INTRODUCTION:  The setting is the location where a study is conducted. There are three common settings for conducting medical research: natural, partially controlled, and highly controlled. A natural setting, or field setting, is an uncontrolled, real-life situation or environment. Conducting a study in a natural setting means that the researcher does not manipulate or change the environment for the study. Descriptive and correlational quantitative studies, qualitative, mixed methods, and outcomes studies often are conducted in natural settings.

THE PARTIALLY CONTROLLED SETTING:  A partially controlled setting is an environment that the researcher manipulates or modifies in some way while conducting a study. This may include studies conducted in hospital settings.

THE HIGHLY CONTROLLED SETTING:  A highly controlled setting is a structured environment that often is artificially developed for the purpose of conducting research. Laboratories, research or experimental centers, and test or highly structured units in hospitals or other healthcare agencies are highly controlled settings. Often experimental and sometimes quasi-experimental studies are conducted in these types of settings. A highly controlled setting reduces the influence of extraneous variables, which enables researchers to examine accurately the effect of an intervention on an outcome.

 

RELATED;

1.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

2.  COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

3.  CHAPTER THREE:  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.  STUDY DESIGNS

5.  MOST PREVAILING RESEARCH PROBLEMS 2022/2023

DATA COLLECTION

 

INTRODUCTION: Data collection is one of the most exciting parts of research. After all the planning, writing, and negotiating that precede it, the researcher is eager for this active part of research. However, before beginning, the researcher must spend time carefully preparing for this endeavor and double-checking each step.

DATA FOR QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH: For quantitative research, preparation begins with clarifying exactly which data will be collected, how they will be collected, and how they will be recorded. The data to be collected are determined by the variables' operational definitions.

THE PROCESS OF DATA COLLECTION: Data collection is the process of selecting subjects and gathering data from them. The actual steps of collecting data are specific to each study and depend on both research design and measurement methods. Data may be collected from subjects by observing, testing, measuring, questioning, recording, or any combination of these methods, either conducted by the research team or retrieved from data sources.

The researcher is actively involved in this process either by collecting data or by supervising data collectors.

RELATED;

1.  Data collection tools

2.  Data analysis

3.  Research methodology

4.  How to write a research proposal

5.  Analysis and presentation of data

REFERENCES

QUOTA SAMPLING

 

INTRODUCTION: Quota sampling is a nonprobability convenience sampling technique in which the proportion of identified groups is predetermined by the researchers. Quota sampling may be used to ensure the inclusion of subject types or strata in a population that are likely to be underrepresented in the convenience sample, such as women, minority groups, elderly adults, poor people, rich people, and undereducated adults. This method may also be used to mimic the known characteristics of the target population or to ensure adequate numbers of subjects in each stratum for the planned statistical analyses.

The technique is similar to the one used in stratified random sampling, but the initial sample is not random. If necessary, mathematical weighting can be used to adjust sample values so that they are consistent with the proportion of subgroups found in the population.

ADVANTAGES: Quota sampling offers an improvement over convenience sampling and tends to decrease potential biases. In most studies in which convenience samples are used, quota sampling could be used and should be considered.

RELATED;

1.  Probability sampling designs  

2.  Stratified random sampling

3.  Research methodology

REFERENCES

NETWORK (SNOWBALL) SAMPLING

 

INTRODUCTION:  Network sampling, sometimes referred to as snowball or chain sampling, holds promise for locating samples difficult or impossible to obtain in other ways or that had not been previously identified for study. Network sampling takes advantage of social networks and the fact that friends tend to have characteristics in common. When you have found a few participants with the necessary criteria, you can ask for their assistance in getting in touch with others with similar characteristics. 

INITIATION OF THE PROCESS:  The first few participants are often obtained through convenience or purposive sampling methods, and the sample size is expanded using network or snowball sampling.  This sampling method is rarely used in quantitative studies, but it is commonly used in qualitative studies. In qualitative research, network sampling is an effective strategy for identifying participants who know other potential participants who can provide the greatest insight and essential information about an experience or event that is identified for study.

SUITABILITY OF THE METHOD:  This strategy is also particularly useful for finding participants in socially devalued populations, such as alcoholics, child abusers, sex offenders, drug addicts, and criminals. These individuals are seldom willing to identify themselves as fitting these categories. Other groups, such as widows, grieving siblings, or individuals successful at lifestyle changes, can be located using this strategy. These individuals are outside the existing healthcare system and are difficult to find. 

LIMITATIONS OF THE METHOD:  Biases are built into the sampling process because the participants are not independent of one another. However, the participants selected have the expertise to provide the essential information needed to address the study purpose.

RELATED;

1.  PROBABILITY SAMPLING  

2.  SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING  

3.  ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING

4.  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES

LITERATURE REVIEW

 

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION:  By the end of this discussion, the learner/reader/medical student will be able to;

1.  Understand the importance of literature in medical research methods

2.  Identify the different sources of literature when it comes to medical research

INTRODUCTION: Researchers almost never conduct a study in an intellectual vacuum; their studies are usually undertaken within the context of an existing knowledge base. Researchers undertake a literature review to familiarize themselves with that knowledge base although, some qualitative researchers deliberately bypass an in-depth literature search before entering the field to avoid having their inquiries constrained or biased by prior work on the topic. Qualitative research: Bias  

In our discussion here, we are looking at the functions that a literature review can play in a research project and the kinds of material covered in a literature review. Suggestions are provided on finding references, reading research reports, recording information, and organizing and drafting a written review.

PURPOSES OF A LITERATURE REVIEW: Literature reviews can serve a number of important functions in the research process as well as important functions for health workers seeking to develop an evidence-based practice. For researchers, acquaintance with relevant research literature and the state of current knowledge can help with the following:

1. Identification of a research problem and development or refinement of research questions or hypotheses.  In most cases if the medical research student have failed to generate a research problem, a very immediate solution will be reading some literature concerning some of the most commonly encountered problems.  For example, I have recently written about the most prevailing researchable problems in Uganda 2023 and you can read about them from here.

2. Orientation to what is known and not known about an area of inquiry, to ascertain what research can best make a contribution to the existing base of evidence.

3. Determination of any gaps or inconsistencies in a body of research.

4. Determination of a need to replicate a prior study in a different setting or with a different study population.

5. Identification or development of new or refined clinical interventions to test through empirical research.

6. Identification of relevant theoretical or conceptual frameworks for a research problem.

7. Identification of suitable designs and data collection methods for a study.

8. For those developing research proposals for funding, identification of experts in the field who could be used as consultants.

9. Assistance in interpreting study findings and in developing implications and recommendations.

A literature review helps to lay the foundation for a study, and can also inspire new research ideas. A literature review also plays a role at the end of the study, when researchers are trying to make sense of their findings. Most research reports include summaries of relevant literature in the introduction. A literature review early in the report provides readers with a background for understanding current knowledge on a topic and illuminates the significance of the new study. Written research reviews are also included in research proposals that describe what a researcher is planning to study and how the study will be conducted.

RELATED;

1. WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

2. MOST PREVAILING RESEARCH PROBLEMS 2023

REFERENCES

RANDOM/PROBABILITY SAMPLING DESIGNS

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION

By the end of this discussion, the reader/medical student will be able to;

1.  Differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling designs.

2.  Describe the different random/probability sampling designs

3.  Outline common applications of random sampling designs

INTRODUCTION: For a design to be called random sampling or probability sampling, it is imperative that each element in the population has an equal and independent chance of selection in the sample. Sampling

Equal implies that the probability of selection of each element in the population is the same; that is, the choice of an element in the sample is not influenced by other considerations such as personal preference. Probability

The concept of independence means that the choice of one element is not dependent upon the choice of another element in the sampling; that is, the selection or rejection of one element does not affect the inclusion or exclusion of another. 

To explain these concepts let us take an example. Suppose there are 80 students in the class. Assume 20 of these refuse to participate in your study that is; you have consented them and to respect their rights they won't be able to participate. You want the entire population of 80 students in your study but, as 20 refuse to participate, you can only use a sample of 60 students. 

The 20 students who refuse to participate could have strong feelings about the issues you wish to explore, but your findings will not reflect their opinions. Their exclusion from your study means that each of the 80 students does not have an equal chance of selection. Therefore, your sample does not represent the total class. The same could apply to a community. In a community, in addition to the refusal to participate, let us assume that you are unable to identify all the residents living in the community. If a significant proportion of people cannot be included in the sampling population because they either cannot be identified or refuse to participate, then any sample drawn will not give each element in the sampling population an equal chance of being selected in the sample. Hence, the sample will not be representative of the total community.

THE CONCEPT OF INDEPENDENCE:  To understand the concept of an independent chance of selection, let us assume that there are five students in the class who are extremely close friends. If one of them is selected but refuses to participate because the other four are not chosen, and you are therefore forced to select either the five or none, then your sample will not be considered an independent sample since the selection of one is dependent upon the selection of others. 

The same could happen in the community where a small group says that either all of them or none of them will participate in the study. In these situations where you are forced either to include or to exclude a part of the sampling population, the sample is not considered to be independent, and hence is not representative of the sampling population. However, if the number of refusals is fairly small, in practical terms, it should not make the sample non-representative. In practice there are always some people who do not want to participate in the study but you only need to worry if the number is significantly large.

A sample can only be considered a random/probability sample (and therefore representative of the population under study) if both these conditions are met. Otherwise, bias can be introduced into the study. Bias

There are two main advantages of random/probability samples:

1. As they represent the total sampling population, the inferences drawn from such samples can be generalised to the total sampling population.

2. Some statistical tests based upon the theory of probability can be applied only to data collected from random samples. Some of these tests are important for establishing conclusive correlations.

RELATED;

1.  ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING  

2.  SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING  

3.  SAMPLE SIZE CALCULATION

REFERENCES

PROBLEM STATEMENT

INTRODUCTION:  As we have discussed several components of Chapter one in writing a research proposal, one of the most immediate step in the process is formulation of a research problem or sometimes referred to as a “problem statement”.  This is an expression of the dilemma or disturbing situation that needs investigation for the purposes of providing understanding and direction.  A problem statement identifies the nature of the problem that is being addressed in the study and, typically, its context and significance.  In general, the problem statement should be broad enough to include central concerns, but narrow enough in scope to serve as a guide to study design.

What are some of the expectations in the problem statement?  Well, like the statement says, it is a brief description of the trigger the researcher encountered, and therefore a quest to carry out the research study.

How long should a problem statement be?  For a precise and clear context, a good problem statement should be not more than a single paragraph, about half a page.  Many times research students tend to be wordy and write very long problem statements but always remember, this is not Problem literature.  Actually the much you put in there will suite very well in Literature review, in Chapter two.

What should be the scope of the data in my problem statement?  It is usually important to state the magnitude of the problem stating with the global basis, then down to continental or regional, and then look at the areas around the expected data collection area or study area.  It may however be noted that, when you start with the problem burden on a global scale, it may introduce bias because some variables may not have generalizability.  Therefore it is always important to have prior knowledge and data about the principle to be investigated.

RELATED;

1.  FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

2.  PREVAILING RESEARCH PROBLEMS 2022

3.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

4.  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

REFERENCES

ROLES OF A RESEARCH SUPERVISOR

ROLES OF A RESEARCH SUPERVISOR:  A research supervisor is on of the most important aspects of a research project.  With the help of a supervisor, the research student is guided step by step from the formulation and approval of a research topic, to the final sign up leading to submission of the research report.  This is of course a long process and that alone clarifies the significance of such a post.  In the this article, we are going to look at the most important roles of a research supervisor, the qualities of a good supervisor and the most common mistakes made by research supervisors.

1.  Roles and crucial steps accomplished by a research supervisor

A student must be assigned a research supervisor before even a research topic is approved and one of the most immediate responsibilities of a supervisor is to make sure that the student choose among the specialties of the discipline he/she is mostly interested in.  For a student conducting the research project from the field they are most interested in, will enjoy the process to maximum and help them add on their theory and practicum.  If you would like to know more about choosing research topics click here.

2.  Qualities of a good supervisor:  A good supervisor will have to bear these qualities to do their job very well.

1.  Use moral judgement to predetermine the student's readiness to conduct the research study.

3.  The most common mistakes made by research supervisors.

One of the most common mistakes made by research supervisors is thinking that the student is at the same level of understanding as they do.

CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 2

 

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION

By the end of the discussion, the learner/medical student will be able to;

1.  Differentiate between the phases of clinical trials

2.  Outline the rationale for phase II clinical trials

INTRODUCTION TO CLINICAL TRAILS PHASE TWO: Efficacy and side effects: Phase II trials are conducted on larger groups of patients (few hundreds) and are aimed to evaluate the efficacy of the drug and to endure the Phase I safety assessments.  These trials aren‘t sufficient to confirm whether the drug will be therapeutic. Phase 2 studies provide with additional safety data to the researchers. Researchers use these data to refine research questions, develop research methods, and design new Phase 3 research protocols. Around 33% of drugs travel to the next phase. Most prominently, Phase II clinical studies aid to found therapeutic doses for the large-scale Phase III studies.

RELATED;

1.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE I

2.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 3

3.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 4

4.  EXPERIMENTAL STUDY DESIGNS

5.  PHARMACOLOGY AND THERAPEUTICS

REFERENCES

PHASES OF CLINICAL TRIALS

 

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION:  By the end of this discussion, the learner/medical student will be able to;

1.  List the intentions of phase 1 clinical trials

2.  Continue with the description of following clinical phases

PHASE 1: Safety and dosage: In some of my previous discussions I was talking about a drug being able to cure the intended disease but also have minimal side effects or in simple terms, safer for the patient.  Phase I trials are the first tests of a drug with a lesser number of healthy human volunteers. In most cases, 20 to 80 healthy volunteers with the disease or a condition participate in Phase 1. Patients are generally only used if the mechanism of action of a drug also known as pharmacodynamics, indicates that it will not be tolerated in healthy people. Pharmacodynamics

However, if a new drug is proposed for use in Parkinsonism patients lets say, researchers conduct Phase 1 trials in patients with that Parkinson’s disease. Phase 1 studies are closely monitored and collect information about Pharmacodynamics in the human body.

Researchers adjust dosage regimen based on animal study data to find out what dose of a drug can tolerate the body and what are its acute side effects. As a Phase 1 trial continues, researchers find out research mechanism of action, the side effects accompanying with increase in dosage, and information about effectiveness. This is imperative to the design of Phase 2 studies. Almost 70% of drugs travel to the next phase.

RELATED;

1.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 2  

2.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 3  

3.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 4  

4.  EXPERIMENTAL STUDY DESIGNS

5.  EXPERIMENTAL STUDY DESIGNS

REFERENCES

CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 3

 

INTRODUCTION: Efficacy and adverse drug reactions monitoring:  Researchers plan Phase 3 studies to prove whether a product deals an action benefit to a specific people or not. Sometimes known as pivotal studies, these studies comprise 300 to 3,000 volunteers. Phase 3 studies deliver most of the safety data. The previous study might not be able to detect less common side effects. But phase 3 studies are conducted on large number of volunteers and longer in duration, the results are more probable to detect long-term or uncommon side effects. Around 25-30% of drugs travel to the next phase of clinical research. If a drug developer has data from its previous tests, preclinical and clinical trials that a drug is safe and effective for its intended use, then the industry can file an application to market the medicine. The FDA review team comprehensively inspects all submitted data on the drug and makes a conclusion to approve or not to approve it.

NEW DRUG APPLICATION: A New Drug Application (NDA) expresses the full story of a drug molecule. Its purpose is to verify that a drug is safe and effective for its proposed use in the people studied. A drug developer must include all about a drug starting from preclinical data to Phase 3 trial detain the NDA. Developers must include reports on all studies, data, and analysis. Beside with clinical trial outcomes, developers must include Proposed labeling, Safety updates, Drug abuse information, Patent information, Institutional review board compliance information, Directions for use.

FDA Review: Once FDA obtains a complete NDA then FDA team of review may require about 6 to 10 months to take a pronouncement on whether to approve the NDA. If FDA governs that a drug has been revealed to be safe and effective for its proposed use, it is then essential to work with the developer for upgrade prescribing information. This is denoted as labeling. Labeling precisely defines the basis for approval and direction how to use the drug. Although, remaining issues required to be fixed before the drug to be approved for marketing. In other cases, FDA have need of additional studies. At this situation, the developer can choose whether to continue further development or not. If a developer distresses with an FDA decision, there are tools for official appeal.

RELATED;

1.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE I

2.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE II

3.  CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 4  

4.  STUDY DESIGNS  

REFERENCES

CLINICAL TRIALS PHASE 4

 

INTRODUCTION: Post-Market Drug Safety Monitoring: Phase 4 trials are conducted when the drug or device has been approved by FDA. These trials are also recognized as post-marketing surveillance involving pharmacovigilance and continuing technical support after approval. There are numerous observational strategies and assessment patterns used in Phase 4 trials to evaluate the efficacy, cost effectiveness, and safety of an involvement in real-world settings. Phase IV studies may be required by regulatory authorities or may be undertaken by the sponsoring company for competitive purposes or other reasons. Therefore, the true illustration of a drug‘s safety essentially requires over the months and even years that mark up a drug‘s lifespan in the market. FDA reviews reports of complications with prescription and OTC drugs, and can decide to add precautions to the dosage or practice information, as well as other events for more serious adverse drug reactions.

REFERENCES

HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

RESEARCH PROPOSAL:  Research projects are conducted in partial fulfilment for the award of diplomas and degree in different specialties.  It is one course unit that lasts for at least a year and towards the end of the course.  In our discussion here, we are going to look at the steps taken to develop a medical research proposal, and also look at the components of the medical research proposal.  We will also get the details of each part as we go along, plus different tactics on how the proposal and reports can be handled without hassle.

Medical research is a pre-requisite for medical student starting from undergraduate level depending of the medical specialty.  It is therefore a must that towards the end of the course, one must develop a research report and be able to defend it.  But before the research report, a proposal must be developed and then later, once it is approved by the Faculty ethics research committee, data is collected and a report is compiled for submission.  Before we continue in case you are new to proposal development, follow the link below for components of a research proposal before we continue.

Components of a research proposal

THE RESEARCH TOPIC:  Before starting the research proposal, one must have a research topic.  It is like the key to open a padlock.  But getting a research problem has not always been easy for students.  In most cases you find student looking around previously research topics and they play around with such work.  But it must be clear that, there is a lot that can be research and in my own view, a good medical student would look forward to research on something new to gain higher credibility.

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM:  So before thinking about getting a research topic, get a research problem first.  This will help you to formulate a problem statement later in your chapter one of the research proposal.  A research problem will be something of a medical or social concern.  The next question now will be; where do I get a research problem from?  A research problem can be be got from media, newspapers, previous research studies, recommendations from other researchers and even just from individual observation during practice.  Follow the link below on how to formulate a research problem.

Formulating a research problem

It is worth noticing that without a problem, there would otherwise be no need to conduct a research study.  And so, prevalence of a problem or a phenomena is the trigger for conduction of research studies in order to draw conclusions.  Let's take some examples to understand the way problems can be generated.

Example 1:  You are working on the medical ward and you notice that every patient from the theatre, will suffer some form of sepsis before being discharged.  The whole idea will be either the surgical team does not sterilize instruments well, the surgeon does not employ sterile techniques during the procedures, or the bedside health practitioners and or the patients attendants have less or no knowledge about the care of a postsurgical wound.  At this point, we all know that sepsis is deadly and must not happen in such case and therefore, the problem will in that case be "High prevalence of sepsis on that specific medical ward".

Example 2:  The sustainable development goals 3.1, outlines a target to reduce the Maternal mortality rate to 70 per 100,000 live birth by the year 2030.  In Uganda according to UNFPA, the number was 336 per 100,000 live birth in 2016.  Therefore the problem in that case was "A higher that expected maternal mortality rate".

If you want more about generating research problems, follow the link below.

Prevailing research problems 2022

Now that you are done with a research problem, you can choose a study setting where you will be able you conduct your study but before that, you may also want to get some information concerning the problem you have identified.  It makes a lot of meaning when you really know about the problem you are talking about and actually when the people who will read your research paper will actually have an idea about the same problem.  We have talked about the research study setting in details and if you would like to read more about it, click on the link below.

The research study setting

When you are done with the research problem and you are finished with formulating a research topic, then you can start making your research writings.  Sometime it is OK that you have chosen a research topic well and you are ready to submit it to your supervisor and or the Research and Ethics committee, then you notes that someone else have the same topic and sometimes as students, you may not be allowed to do topics under the same theme.  In that case I would say in advance that, it is always good to formulate more than one research topics, and then let the supervisor choose or suggest for you what is best.  The research supervisor is one of the most important entity in your research project and without him/her, your research may not be valid.

RELATED;

1.  THE PROBLEM STATEMENT

2.  COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

3.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH REPORT

4.  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

5.  COMPONENTS OF A MEDICAL RESEARCH REPORT

ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION

By the end of this discussion, the learner/medical student/reader will be able to;

1.  Explain the meaning of data analysis

2.  Explain the ways data can be presented

3.  List some of the tools that can be used in data analysis

INTRODUCTION: So much we have discussed about data, the types of data, analysis of data and presentation of data. For a medical scientist whether a biostatician or a medical researcher, the way data is analysed and presented matter a lot. For it gives the exact understanding and a broad picture before conclusions are made. 

In most cases some readers will have hard time reading through the written work of the data analysed however, it may be easier for them to understand the graphical presentation of data.  I too find it very easy to understand the work presented in form of graphs and pie chart compared to the written documents of the same work.  In our discussion here, we are going to see the different techniques data can be presented and analyzed.

DATA ANALYSIS:  Now we are taking it that you have finished collecting your data and compiled it to make sure everything is in your data pack including consent forms and the questionnaires in case you used them.  The next step will be data analysis and here, it is up to the researcher to decide using electronic software or manual methods to analyze their data.  I can not discourage either the manual or the electronic method but what I can say, for an undergraduate not very well experiences with electronic data systems, the manual method will save time and minimize on the possible mistakes.  In my discussion here therefore, I am going to rely on manual methods of data analysis, and then we shall be able to look at the electronic  methods later.  For those interested in the electronic data analysis using tools, follow the link below for some of the most frequently used data tools.

Download PAST v4 for electronic data analysis

Before starting the process of data analysis, it important to know the types of data you are analyzing whether it is qualitative data or quantitative data.  For both types of data are analysed differently.  If you are not well versed with the difference between qualitative and quantitative research, click on the links below, to continue with our discussion.

The qualitative study design

The quantitative study design

Analysing data for qualitative studies

Analysis of data for quantitative studies

RELATED;

1.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH REPORT

2.  VIDEO DEMONSTRATION ON DATA ANALYSIS USING TOOLS

3.  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.  DATA COLLECTION

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

OBJECTIVES OF THE DISCUSSION:  By the end of this discussion, the reader will be able to;

1.  List the components of chapter three of the research proposal

2.  

CHAPTER THREE:  RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:  Chapter three is one of the backbone of a research proposal and research report.  For it fully describes the methods and the way they will be employed in the process of research.  In addition, this section also looks at the research ethics that will be employed in the research project and at the end of this chapter, the research student is expected to be approved to continue with their data collection as the next step.  In this article, we are listing the components of Chapter three and where needed, the details will also be redirected.

3.0  Introduction:  In this section, the student is expected to write a list of all the components expected in the chapter such that it gives a reader few question to ask if any.  This should of course be in form of a paragraph.

3.1  Study settings:  In the study settings, you are expected to tell the place you wish to conduct your research study from.  Depending on the type of study you are conducting, it may require you to outline some social and economic activities carried out in the study setting and the distance of the place from the nearby most recognized location.  To read more about the research study settings click here.

3.2  Study design:  The study design is one of the most important and core parts of any research projects.  In all dimensions, the research study design will elaborate the way a study will behave and the most predictable outcomes.  To continue reading about the various study designs, click here.

3.3  Study population:  The study population are the individuals from which you as the researcher is intending to collect data.  The study population the broad way of looking at the sources of data and the number projected will be higher than the anticipated sample size.  To read about the details of study population and how to precisely choose a reliable study population, click here.

3.4  Sample size determination:  Sample size determination is one other very crucial step in conducting a research study that follows prediction of the study design.  Usually the first question will be; 

How will I chose the sample from which to collect data?  

And then the answer to the question will be, determine the appropriate study design.  The next question then will be;

From how many respondents will I be able to collect sufficient data?

And the answer will be;  Predetermine the sample size in relation to your study.  in one of my previous discussions I have already talked about the criteria to determine the sample and if you have not been following me, click here for the link.

RELATED;

1.  CHAPTER FOUR OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

2.  DATA COLLECTION

3.  INITIAL PAGES OF A RESEARCH PROPOSAL AND RESEARCH REPORT

4.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

5.  STRATEGIES FOR DETRMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE

COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

Objectives of this article;  By the end of our discussion here, the learner will be able to;

1.  State the preparations made before starting to write a research report.

2.  Mention the different sections of a medical research report.

COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH REPORT:  Before starting to write a research report, the student should make sure all their data is analysed and ready to be presented in form of graphs and charts in chapter four On this page, we are going to look at the components of a research report.

COVER PAGE:  For any research project, a cover page will display the topic of the research project, the credentials of the researcher that is, the names and registration numbers where applicable, the date when the report was compiled and submitted and the institution under which the research is being conducted.

APPROVAL OF THE RESEARCH REPORT:  On this page, there will be signatures, names and dates when signed of the student, the research supervisor and then head of the faculty if possible.  For some institutions, there may also be a letter countersigned in that respect.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE

CHAPTER TWO

CHAPTER THREE

CHAPTER FOUR

CHAPTER FIVE

CHAPTER SIX:  In this chapter, we make conclusions about the data analyzed and presented earlier, then where possible, we make recommendations.

REFERENCES:  The references in addition to citations, is the evidence of the information used in the research project.

APPENDIX I:  DATA COLLECTION TOOLS:  The data collection tool will be the instrument used to collect data such as a questionnaire for interviews.

APPENDIX II:  APPROVAL OF THE RESEARCH PROPOSAL:  Before starting the process of data collection, a research student must ensure that the research study has been accepted and it follows the guidelines according to the responsible institution, and a letter of approval is usually attached.  This is part of medical ethics as described in details from the link below.

Ethical considerations in medical research

APPENDIX III:  MAP OF THE DATA COLLECTION AREA:  The map showing data collection area is very important to the readers of your research proposal or report in that, it gives a picture of where the data was collected basing on the readers perspective about the places known.  Usually, they will be two or three maps one showing the Country and the district or region of data collection and where applicable, the map of the District and then the map of the data collection area.  You can learn how to extract maps using Google Earth by clicking here.

APPENDIX IV:  BUDGET OF THE RESEARCH PROJECT:  The budget is simply put forward for any researcher to ensure that the expenditure for the research study will be favorable.  It should be noted that for any research project, a very high expenditure that will not be affordable by the student is as good as not conducting the study at all.

APPENDIX V:  WORKPLAN FOR THE PROJECT:  This is simply a step by step record of what was being done and when during the time of development of the research proposal to the development and submission of the research report.

RELATED;

1.  HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

2.  MEDICAL RESEARCH METHODS

3.  The most prevailing research problems 2023