APOPTOSIS

 

Introduction:  Apoptosis scientifically means programmed cell death, affecting a single or small group of cells, as a result of signal transduction of specific genes. Apoptosis is an active process that needs energy and in that case it uses cellular respiratory process for the energy that drives it.

Regulation of the process:  It is a tightly regulated type of cell death that is seen in some specific situations. Whereas it’s relative necrosis is always a pathological process, apoptosis serves many normal functions and is not necessarily associated with pathological cell injury, and the dying cells are scattered throughout the tissue.  

Disposition of waste cellular material:  Apoptosis is a process of self-destruction, in which the cells shrink as a result of the decrease of cytosol, intracellular organelles, and the nucleus is fragmented into small parts without loss of membrane, some organelles are lysed and repelled outside the cells, and the cell disintegrates into fragments referred to as apoptotic bodies.

Scope of the process:  In the average adult between 50 and 70 billion cells, die each day by apoptosis.  Inhibition of apoptosis can result in a number of cancers, autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, whilst hyperactive apoptosis can lead to neurodegenerative diseases, marrow aplasia, and skin disease.

Mechanisms of Apoptosis:  Signal transductions from a specific gene (apoptotic gene) is started as a result of withdrawal of specific growth factors. The second step is activation of internal enzyme like nuclease, protease, endonucleases, which lyses and repel out of some cellular organelle, the third step is reduction of cell size and loss of the biological activities of this cell forming multiple apoptotic bodies (dead bodies).

RELATED;

1.  CANCER

2.  THE ORIGIN OF CANCER

3.  PATHOLOGY

REFERENCES

FORMED ELEMENTS FROM STEM CELLS

INTRODUCTION: All formed elements arise from stem cells of the red bone marrow. Recall that stem cells undergo mitosis plus cytokinesis (cellular division) to give rise to new daughter cells: One of these remains a stem cell and the other differentiates into one of any number of diverse cell types. Stem cells may be viewed as occupying a hierarchal system, with some loss of the ability to diversify at each step.

TOTIPOTENT STEM CELL: The totipotent stem cell is the zygote, or fertilized egg. The totipotent (toti- = “all”) stem cell gives rise to all cells of the human body.

PLURIPOTENT STEM CELL: The next level is the pluripotent stem cell, which gives rise to multiple types of cells of the body and some of the supporting fetal membranes. Beneath this level, the mesenchymal cell is a stem cell that develops only into types of connective tissue, including fibrous connective tissue, bone, cartilage, and blood, but not epithelium, muscle, and nervous tissue. 

HEMOPOIETIC STEM CELL: One step lower on the hierarchy of stem cells is the hemopoietic stem cell, or hemocytoblast. All of the formed elements of blood originate from this specific type of cell. Hemopoiesis begins when the hemopoietic stem cell is exposed to appropriate chemical stimuli collectively called hemopoietic growth factors, which prompt it to divide and differentiate. One daughter cell remains a hemopoietic stem cell, allowing hemopoiesis to continue. The other daughter cell becomes either of two types of more specialized stem cells: Lymphoid stem cells give rise to a class of leukocytes known as lymphocytes, which include the various T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells, all of which function in immunity. Leukocytes

However, hemopoiesis of lymphocytes progresses somewhat differently from the process for the other formed elements. In brief, lymphoid stem cells quickly migrate from the bone marrow to lymphatic tissues, including the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus, where their production and differentiation continues.

B cells are so named since they mature in the bone marrow, while T cells mature in the thymus. Myeloid stem cells give rise to all the other formed elements, including the erythrocytes; megakaryocytes that produce platelets; and a myeloblast lineage that gives rise to monocytes and three forms of granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Erythrocytes

Lymphoid and myeloid stem cells do not immediately divide and differentiate into mature formed elements. There are several intermediate stages of precursor cells (literally, forerunner cells), many of which can be recognized by their names, which have the suffix -blast. For instance, megakaryoblasts are the precursors of megakaryocytes, and proerythroblasts become reticulocytes, which eject their nucleus and most other organelles before maturing into erythrocytes.

RELATED;  

1. LEUKOCYTES  

2. ERYTHROCYTES  

3. BLOOD AND ITS COMPONENTS

4.  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

REFERENCES