COMPOSITION OF BLOOD

Introduction: You have probably had blood drawn from a superficial vein in your arm, which was then sent to a lab for analysis. Some of the most common blood tests for instance, those measuring lipid or glucose levels in plasma determine which substances are present within blood and in what quantities. Other blood tests check for the composition of the blood itself, including the quantities and types of formed elements. 

One such test, called a hematocrit, measures the percentage of RBCs, clinically known as erythrocytes, in a blood sample. It is performed by spinning the blood sample in a specialized centrifuge, a process that causes the heavier elements suspended within the blood sample to separate from the lightweight, liquid plasma. Because the heaviest elements in blood are the erythrocytes, these settle at the very bottom of the hematocrit tube. Located above the erythrocytes is a pale, thin layer composed of the remaining formed elements of blood. These are the WBCs, clinically known as leukocytes, and the platelets, cell fragments also called thrombocytes. This layer is referred to as the buffy coat because of its color; it normally constitutes less than 1 percent of a blood sample. Above the buffy coat is the blood plasma, normally a pale, straw-colored fluid, which constitutes the remainder of the sample. The volume of erythrocytes after centrifugation is also commonly referred to as packed cell volume (PCV). 

In normal blood, about 45 percent of a sample is erythrocytes. The hematocrit of any one sample can vary significantly, however, about 36–50 percent, according to gender and other factors. Normal hematocrit values for females range from 37 to 47, with a mean value of 41; for males, hematocrit ranges from 42 to 52, with a mean of 47. The percentage of other formed elements, the WBCs and platelets, is extremely small so it is not normally considered with the hematocrit. So the mean plasma percentage is the percent of blood that is not erythrocytes: for females, it is approximately 59 (or 100 minus 41), and for males, it is approximately 53 (or 100 minus 47).

RELATED;

1.  THE ABO BLOOD GROUPING  

2.  THE HUMAN RED BLOOD CELLS

3.  ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

References

HYPOGLYCEMIA

 

Introduction: Hypoglycemia meaning abnormally low blood glucose level occurs when the blood glucose falls below 50 to 60 mg/dL. It can be caused by too much insulin or oral hypoglycemic agents, too little food, or excessive physical activity.

Hypoglycemia may occur at any time. It often occurs before meals, especially if meals are delayed or if snacks are omitted. Middle-of-the-night hypoglycemia may occur because of peaking evening NPH or Lente insulins, especially in patients who have not eaten a bedtime snac.  INSULIN

CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS: The symptoms of hypoglycemia may be grouped into two categories: adrenergic symptoms and central nervous system symptoms. Hypoglycemic symptoms may occur suddenly and unexpectedly and vary from person to person. Patients who have blood glucose in the hyperglycemic range (200 mg/dL or greater) may feel hypoglycemic with adrenergic symptoms when blood glucose quickly drops to 120 mg/ dL (6.6 mmol/L) or less. Patients with usual blood glucose levels in the low range of normal may not experience symptoms when blood glucose slowly falls under 50 mg/dL (2.7 mmol/L).

A decreased hormonal (adrenergic) response to hypoglycemia may occur in patients who have had diabetes for many years. Patient must perform blood glucose checks frequently. As the glucose falls, the normal surge of adrenaline does not occur, and patient does not feel the usual adrenergic symptoms (sweating and shakiness).

RELATED;

1.  GLUCOSE AND THE PANCREAS

2.  THE ENDOCRINE PANCREAS

REFERENCES

OXYGEN

 

INTRODUCTION: Oxygen is a chemical element with symbol O and atomic number 8 in the periodic table of elements. It is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table and is a highly reactive nonmetal and oxidizing agent that readily forms compounds such as oxides with most elements. Many major classes of organic molecules in living organisms contain oxygen, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and fats, as do the major constituent inorganic compounds of animal shells, teeth, and bone.  

Proteins: nucleic acids: Carbohydrates: fats  

Most of the mass of living organisms is oxygen as a component of water, the major constituent of lifeforms. Oxygen is used in cellular respiration and released by photosynthesis, which uses the energy of sunlight to produce oxygen from water and carbon dioxide. 

Water, the universal solvent

RELATED;

1.  CARBON DIOXIDE

2.  NITRIC OXIDE

3.  BIOCHEMISTRY

SPECIFIC IMMUNITY (ACQUIRED, ADAPTIVE OR INDUCIBLE)

 

INTRODUCTION: Acquired immunity refers to that immunity which a person develops during his lifetime. Acquired immunity is the surveillance mechanism that specifically recognizes foreign antigens and selectively eliminates them, and on re-encountering the antigen has an enhanced response also sometimes referred to as memory.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: There are six major characteristics of acquired immunity: 1) Specificity 2) Inducibility 3) Diversity 4) Memory 5) Distinguishing self from nonself and finally 6) Self-limiting

HUMORAL IMMUNITY: Immunity based on antibodies is called as humoral immunity. Antibodies are produced by B subset of lymphocytes. probably the most formidable type of immunity.  This form of immunity is conveniently subdivided into that which is actively acquired and that which is passively acquired. The humoral immunity protects against circulating extracellular antigens such as bacteria, microbial exotoxins and viruses in their extracellular phase; that is, antibodies normally interact with circulating antigens but are unable to penetrate living cells. In active immunity the individual synthesizes his own antibodies, whereas in passive immunity the individual receives these antibodies from some other individual, either a human or a lower animal. Both active and passive types may each be further divided into natural and artificial. The artificial types are those that result from intervention by physicians. Passive immunisation

ACTIVELY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: A degree of naturally acquired active immunity results from any infection from which a person recovers, whether the illness is serious or subclinical. During the illness the individual receives an antigenic stimulus which initiates antibody production against that specific pathogen. On a subsequent visitation by the same or an antigenically related pathogen, these antibodies will assist in the defense of the body. Because many microbes produce diseases with a high morbidity, this is not a very satisfactory way of developing immunity. This problem could be overcome by producing safe and potent vaccines or toxoids that are being used to induce active immunity. 

RELATED;

1.  ACTIVE IMMUNISATION  

2.  PASSIVE IMMUNITY  

3.  BCG IMMUNISATION  

4.  IMMUNOGLOBULINS

5.  MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY

REFERENCES

ANTIMALARIAL ACTION AND RESISTANCE OF QUININE

 

INTRODUCTION: Quinine is a rapid-acting, highly effective blood schizonticide against the four species of human malaria parasites. The drug is gametocidal against P. vivax and P. ovale but not P falciparum. It is not active against liver stage parasites. The mechanism of action of quinine is unknown. Increasing in vitro resistance of parasites from a number of areas suggests that quinine resistance will be an increasing problem. Resistance to quinine is already common in some areas of Southeast Asia, especially border areas of Thailand, where the drug may fail if used alone to treat falciparum malaria. However, quinine still provides at least a partial therapeutic effect in most patients. Antimicrobial drug resistance

CLINICAL USES: Parenteral Treatment of Severe Falciparum Malaria. For many years, quinine dihydrochloride or quinidine gluconate have been the treatments of choice for severe falciparum malaria, although intravenous artesunate now provides an alternative for this indication. Quinine can be administered slowly intravenously or, in a dilute solution, intramuscularly. The drug can be administered in divided doses or by continuous intravenous infusion; treatment should begin with a loading dose to rapidly achieve effective plasma concentrations. Because of its cardiac toxicity and the relative unpredictability of its pharmacokinetics, intravenous quinidine should be administered slowly with cardiac monitoring. Therapy should be changed to an effective oral agent as soon as the patient has improved and can tolerate oral medications.

ORAL TREATMENT OF FALCIPARUM MALARIA: Quinine sulfate is appropriate therapy for uncomplicated falciparum malaria except when the infection was transmitted in an area without documented chloroquine-resistant malaria. Quinine is commonly used with a second drug (most often doxycycline or, in children, clindamycin) to shorten quinine’s duration of use (usually to 3 days) and limit toxicity. Quinine is less effective than chloroquine against other human malarias and is more toxic. Therefore, it is not used to treat infections with these parasites.

MALARIAL CHEMOPROPHYLAXIS: Quinine is not generally used in chemoprophylaxis owing to its toxicity, although a daily dose of 325 mg is effective.

BABESIOSIS: Quinine is first-line therapy, in combination with clindamycin, in the treatment of infection with Babesia microti or other human babesial infections.

ADVERSE EFFECTS: Therapeutic dosages of quinine and quinidine commonly cause tinnitus (ringing in the ears), headache, nausea, dizziness, flushing, and visual disturbances, a constellation of symptoms termed cinchonism. Mild symptoms of cinchonism do not warrant the discontinuation of therapy. More severe findings, often after prolonged therapy, include more marked visual and auditory abnormalities, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Hypersensitivity reactions include skin rashes, urticaria, angioedema, and bronchospasm. Hematologic abnormalities include hemolysis (especially with G6PD deficiency), leukopenia, agranulocytosis, and thrombocytopenia. Therapeutic doses may cause hypoglycemia through stimulation of insulin release; this is a particular problem in severe infections and in pregnant patients, who have increased sensitivity to insulin. Quinine can stimulate uterine contractions, especially in the third trimester. However, this effect is mild, and quinine and quinidine remain drugs of choice for severe falciparum malaria even during pregnancy. Intravenous infusions of the drugs may cause thrombophlebitis. Severe hypotension can follow too-rapid intravenous infusions of quinine or quinidine. Electrocardiographic abnormalities (QT interval prolongation) are fairly common with intravenous quinidine, but dangerous arrhythmias are uncommon when the drug is administered appropriately in a monitored setting. Blackwater fever is a rare severe illness that includes marked hemolysis and hemoglobinuria in the setting of quinine therapy for malaria. It appears to be due to a hypersensitivity reaction to the drug, although its pathogenesis is uncertain.

CONTRAINDICATIONS & CAUTIONS: Quinine (or quinidine) should be discontinued if signs of severe cinchonism, hemolysis, or hypersensitivity occur. It should be avoided if possible in patients with underlying visual or auditory problems. It must be used with great caution in those with underlying cardiac abnormalities. Quinine should not be given concurrently with mefloquine and should be used with caution in a patient with malaria who has previously received mefloquine chemoprophylaxis. Absorption may be blocked by aluminum containing antacids. Quinine can raise plasma levels of warfarin and digoxin. Dosage must be reduced in renal insufficiency.

RELATED;

1.  ARTEMISININ COMBINATION THERAPIES

2.  PLASMODIUM

references

PROTEINS

 

INTRODUCTION: The word protein is derived from Greek word, “proteios” which means primary. As the name shows, the proteins are of paramount importance for biological systems. Out of the total dry body weight, three quarters are made up of proteins. Proteins are used for body building; all the major structural and functional aspects of the body are carried out by protein molecules. These include the keratin in the hair, the nail, to mention but a few. 

SPECTRUM OF ACTIVITY AND BIOCHEMICAL COMPOSITION: Abnormality in protein structure will lead to molecular diseases with profound alterations in metabolic functions. Proteins contain Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen as the major components while Sulphur and Phosphorus are minor constituents. Nitrogen is characteristic of proteins. On an average, the nitrogen content of ordinary proteins is 16% by weight. All proteins are polymers of amino acids. [AMINOACIDS]

THE PEPTIDE BOND: Amino Acids are Linked by Peptide Bonds. The Alpha carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with alpha amino group of another amino acid to form a peptide bond or CO-NH bridge. Proteins are made by polymerisation of amino acids through peptide bonds. Two amino acids are combined to form a dipeptide; three amino acids form a tripeptide; four will make a tetrapeptide; a few amino acids together will make an oligopeptide; and combination of 10 to 50 amino acids is called as a polypeptide.  

By convention, big polypeptide chains containing more than 50 amino acids are called proteins. In a tripeptide, there are 3 amino acids, but these 3 can be any of the total 20 amino acids. Thus 20³ = 8000 different permutations and combinations are possible in a tripeptide. Thus, even though there are only 20 amino acids, by changing the sequence of combination of these amino acids, nature produces enormous number of markedly different proteins. [MUTATION]

STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION OF PROTEINS: Proteins have different levels of structural organization and these are; primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. This form of organization, clearly describe the arrangement from a single amino acid, to a dipeptide, to the complex macromolecule of the protein with the largest molecular mass.

PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS: This means the order of amino acids in the polypeptide chain and the location of disulfide bonds, if any. Secondary structure is the steric relationship of amino acids, close to each other. Tertiary structure denotes the overall arrangement and interrelationship of the various regions, or domains of a single polypeptide chain. Quaternary structure results when the proteins consist of two or more polypeptide chains held together by non-covalent forces.  

RELATED

1.  AMINO ACIDS

2.  THE TERTIARY STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

3.  NUCLEIC ACIDS

4.  LIPIDS

5.  ENZYMES

[REFERENCES]

HOW TO UNINSTALL ANDROID APPS USING ADB COMMANDS

HOW TO UNINSTALL ANDROID APPS USING ADB COMMANDS:  Sometimes uninstalling android apps becomes troublesome when you actually realize the  app you uninstalled reappears after phone restart or after some time.  This is especially true when it comes to bloatware.  Using adb commands to uninstall apps is one of the simplest way to get rid of such issues.  In this article, let us look at how apps can be uninstalled using adb commands.

Requirements:

1.  Minimal adb and fastboot setup:  This tool will be used to run the adb commands.  Some sources are recommending using that android SDK tools but since I am not a software developer, I can not decide which is best but, I found this easy and quick.  To download Minimal adb and fastboot setup for windows, follow the link below.

Download minimal adb and fastboot setup for windows

2.  Computer running windows

3.  Original USB cable of the phone

4.  The smartphone onto which you want to uninstall the app

5.  USB drivers of the phone.  You can follow the link below to download USB drivers for your smartphone.

Download windows drivers for smartphones

Steps

1.  Right click on the Minimal adb and fastboot setup on the desktop of you PC and choose "Run as administrator"

2.  Connect the smart phone to the PC and make sure USB debugging in your phone is active.  If you don't know how to ativate USB debugging, click here.

3.  In the blank window type the command, "adb devices" to see whether your phone is detected.

4.  Then enter the command "adb uninstall" followed by the package name of the app you want to uninstall.  If you don't know how to check for the package name of the app you want to uninstall, click here for help.

5.  Wait for the uninstallation process and that's all.  And it will take just a matter of seconds

RELATED;

1.  Install android apps using adb commands

2.  Android windows connectivity

3.  Software download links and video demos

4.  Tools for installing android apps

PLATELETS

INTRODUCTION: Platelets are the smallest formed elements in the blood. They are fragments of larger, multinucleated cells, which are the largest discrete constituents of the bone marrow known as megakaryocytes, but platelets have no nuclei of their own. Most platelets remain in the circulation, but a substantial minority is trapped in the spleen; this phenomenon becomes important in a variety of immune-mediated decreases in platelet count known as thrombocytopenia.

LIFE SPAN OF PLATELETS: In the setting of a normal platelet count, they have a circulatory half-life of about 10 days. In cases of thrombocytopenia, their half-life decreases, as they are consumed in the routine maintenance of vascular integrity.

ROLE OF PLATELETS IN CIRCULATION: Platelets are integral components of the coagulation system. Their membranes provide an important source of phospholipids (PLs), which are required for the function of the coagulation system proteins, and contain important receptors that allow attachment to endothelial cells (platelet adhesion) so that a platelet plug can be formed in response to blood vessel injury. This prevents further blood loss after trauma and limits the coagulation response to the site of injury rather than letting coagulation proceed inappropriately.

The cytoplasm is also important for platelet function, particularly the intracellular dense granules and alpha granules. The phenomenon of platelet activation is also called “degranulation” and can be initiated by exposure of platelets to the activated blood coagulation factor thrombin, adenosine 5′-diphosphate (ADP), or collagen. This last reaction is probably the most important, occurring when collagen, normally in the basement membrane below the endothelial cells, is exposed to the blood after injury.

APPEARANCE AND SHAPE: On examination of the blood smear, platelets are small, irregularly shaped blue or purple granular bodies. In conditions in which platelet numbers are rising as a result of increased marrow activity, the more immature platelets can be identified by their larger size.

RELATED;

1. RED BLOOD CELLS  

2.  LEUKOCYTES

3.  THROMBOCYTOPENIA

REFERENCES

HOW TO TEMPORARILY TURN OFF WINDOWS DEFENDER

HOW TO TEMPORARILY TURN OFF WINDOWS DEFENDER:  Windows 10 security features are awesome like they have never been before in the earlier versions of windows.  I am one guy that tested many antivirus packages and I was kept disappointed at some point especially that the prices for a genuine antivirus package was always too high for me compared to leaving my PC vulnerable.  The birth of windows defender was one of the things I really thank Microsoft for the deep upgrading when it comes to Windows security I have never had any serious threats like it used to be before.  

But of course everything good may limit you here or there.  I am not a tech expert nor a geek expert but there are times when I wanted to run some medical applications and the Windows defender kept stopping them somehow, so I could not read the electronic medical software.  I know it was on my security side but since I was going to read them for just a couple of minutes, it was not a big issue for me to temporarily deactivate the security and then switch back when done.  OK I think you have ever had the same issue sometime.  In here, I am going to show you how to turn off windows defender for some time.  And if you want a video demonstration on the same issue, find it from "Mega Mover Empire" portal on YouTube from here please.

Steps:

1.  Go to your windows settings page by clicking on the Windows logo in the bottom left corner and then select the "settings" tab.

2.  From there, select and open "Windows update and security"

3.  Choose "Windows security" from the left side pane that comes up.

4.  Click and open "Virus and threat protection"  

5.  Scroll down to "Virus and threat protection setting" and click on Manage settings

6.  Uncheck the virus protection settings as desired.  Then when done, go back and check back the setting to be protected.

NOTE:  Mega mover Empire and it's editors are not Microsoft workers meaning that, this description is basing on user experience and therefore by doing this, you must know what you are doing.  Also, this description is basing on Windows 10 version 22H2 and the reference is Microsoft docs from the link below.

https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/turn-off-defender-antivirus-protection-in-windows-security-99e6004f-c54c-8509-773c-a4d776b77960

RELATED;

1.  FULL USE OF WINDOWS 10 INBUILT TOOLS

2.  SOFTWARE DOWNLOAD LINKS AND VIDEO DEMONSTRATIONS

3.  MUSIC DOWNLOAD LINKS

HYDROCARBONS

HYDROCARBONS:  Hydrocarbons are organic compound containing of only two elements; Carbon and Hydrogen.  These are functional groups and side chains of many biological molecules as we shall see.

ST. JOHN’S WORT AND TREATMENT OF DEPRESSION

INTRODUCTION: One of the most popular herbs in the United States, St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum), is found growing throughout Asia, Europe, and North America. Its modern use is as an antidepressant. It gets its name from a legend that red spots once appeared on its leaves on the anniversary of the beheading of St. John the Baptist. The word wort is a British term for “plant.”

ACTIVE INGREDIENTS: The primary active ingredients found in St. John’s wort are hypericin and hyperforin, which are believed to selectively inhibit serotonin reuptake in certain brain neurons. A number of clinical studies suggest that St. John’s wort is an effective treatment for mild to moderate depression, that it may be just as effective as standard antidepressants, and that it causes fewer adverse effects than traditional drugs.

DRUG-DRUG INTERACTIONS: St. John’s wort, however, may interact with many medications, including hormonal contraceptives, warfarin, digoxin, and cyclosporine. It should not be taken concurrently with antidepressant medications. St. John’s wort is well tolerated, producing mild side effects such as GI distress, fatigue, and allergic skin reactions. The herb contains compounds that photosensitize the skin; thus, patients should be advised to apply sunscreen or to wear protective clothing when outdoors.

RELATED;

1.  GRAPES SEED EXTRACT FOR HYPERTENTION

REFERENCES